Haig and his Sun caused earthquakes

I guess you are glad that you link to a pdf without figures, otherwise you would clearly see the nonsense that these guys claim from Figs. 3 and 5 and 6 for example. Oh, it can be in phase, or out of phase and an increase can happen if the Wolf number increases or decreases, and whatever.

For those interested in the real publication go here to ResearchGate (beware, looooong download time)


You're sounding a bit bitter tusenfem :eek: are things not going your way? ;)

Thanks for posting the link to ResearchGate it is important that sources can be easily checked and I usually rush too much :covereyes

So tusenfem WHY can't the Sun outputs that are Earth facing / impacting (such as: coronal holes, flares, filaments, sudden changes in the solar wind speed, changes in polarity ... etc) may "trigger" earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events be ELECTROMAGNETIC in nature ?

Now don't go on about magnetic reconnection !

You know Hannes Alfvén warns against magnetic reconnection in this ...

On frozen-in field lines and field-line reconnection
Abstract
It is shown that ‘frozen-in magnetic field lines’ and ‘magnetic field-line reconnection’ are unnecessary and often misleading concepts.


Remember tusenfem

Magnetism and electricity are not separate phenomena
they are the related manifestations of an underlying electromagnetic force.


and

Electromagnetism:
in a key development for modern physics, electricity and magnetism were `unified' into electromagnetism

the connection develops from the fact that an electric current (the flow of electrons in a metal) produces a magnetic field

Faraday shows that a changing electric field produces a magnetic field and, vice-versus, a changing magnetic field produces an electric current

Maxwell completes the theory with a full mathematical description of the relationship between electric and magnetic fields = electromagnetism
 
Unlike you I know about relative strengths.
Our magnetosphere would not even slow down the amount of energy needed to affect the earth from the distance of the sun.
After all, if it could stop power flows like that, no single magnet on earth would work as they have nowhere near the power needed for your fantasy.
Unless of course you introduce a magical way for the magnetosphere to interact differently with earth bound electromagnetism.
 
Unlike you I know about relative strengths.
Our magnetosphere would not even slow down the amount of energy needed to affect the earth from the distance of the sun.
After all, if it could stop power flows like that, no single magnet on earth would work as they have nowhere near the power needed for your fantasy.
Unless of course you introduce a magical way for the magnetosphere to interact differently with earth bound electromagnetism.


Well Lukraak_Sisser what's the "relative strength" of a solar flare that would suddenly change the rotation of the Earth?

Can you calculate that and what coupling mechanism could do it?

Solar flare and sudden change of Earth's rotation
Abstract
It is shown that it is only when, in a shock pair produced by a large solar flare, the velocity of the following shock is clearly greater than that of the leading shock that a sudden change in the Earth's rotation can occur.


Our electromagnetic shield called the "magnetosphere" can't always stop or deflect what the Sun sends our way, especially now it's weakening drastically.

Does the Earth's Magnetosphere Protect Us From the Sun's Solar Wind?
The solar wind -- protons and electrons emitted by the sun -- travels through the solar system. When the solar wind encounters Earth, the magnetosphere deflects most of the charged particles and shields our planet's surface.
But when the IMF field lines and the geomagnetic field lines are not parallel, they tend to interact, creating a path for the solar wind particles to leak into the upper atmosphere, the most spectacular consequence of which are the auroral displays (aurora borealis and aurora australis) over the higher latitudes.
As scientists at the European Space Agency put it, the Earth’s magnetosphere sometimes behaves like a sieve. It does protect us from the solar wind, but not always.


Earth's Magnetic Field Is Weakening 10 Times Faster Now
Previously, researchers estimated the field was weakening about 5 percent per century, but the new data revealed the field is actually weakening at 5 percent per decade, or 10 times faster than thought
Scientists think fluctuations in the magnetic field could help identify where continental plates are shifting and help predict earthquakes.
 
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Well Lukraak_Sisser what's the "relative strength" of a solar flare that would suddenly change the rotation of the Earth?
Totally wrong, Haig. You are supporting Ben Davison's delusion that solar activity causes earthquakes. So you have to support it, not Lukraak_Sisser.
26 August 2015 Haig: What's the "relative strength" of a solar flare that would suddenly change the rotation of the Earth?

Cherry picking obscure and old papers is not support. Especially when the paper has a single author, a single line abstract and is supported by National Natural Science Youth Foundation (a postgrad student?) :eek:!
For that matter it is behind a pay wall and so you have no idea what it contains or how valid it is. Not that you are capable of evaluating whether science is valid or not, Haig: Haig: 14 delusions about the Sun and earthquakes since 4 May 2015
 
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Totally wrong, Haig. You are supporting Ben Davison's delusion that solar activity causes earthquakes. So you have to support it, not Lukraak_Sisser.
26 August 2015 Haig: What's the "relative strength" of a solar flare that would suddenly change the rotation of the Earth?

Cherry picking obscure and old papers is not support. Especially when the paper has a single author, a single line abstract and is supported by National Natural Science Youth Foundation (a postgrad student?) :eek:!
For that matter it is behind a pay wall and so you have no idea what it contains or how valid it is. Not that you are capable of evaluating whether science is valid or not, Haig: Haig: 14 delusions about the Sun and earthquakes since 4 May 2015



You posted while I was doing an edit RC


What's wrong with the paper I quote ? apart from being obscure and old :rolleyes:

This is new RC ...

Scientists think fluctuations in the magnetic field could help identify where continental plates are shifting and help predict earthquakes.
 
You posted while I was doing an edit RC
Still contains the idiotic demand that Lukraak_Sisser support the delusion that you are supporting.
26 August 2015 Haig: What's the "relative strength" of a solar flare that would suddenly change the rotation of the Earth?

What's wrong with the paper I quote ?
It is
  1. Obscure.
  2. Old.
  3. Possibly by a student.
  4. Has a single author.
  5. Has a single line abstract.
  6. You have no idea whether is has been cited.
  7. You have no idea whether it has been refuted.
  8. You have no idea about the expertise of the author.
  9. And the most damning fact of all - you have no idea what is contains and no way of knowing if the science is valid:
    For that matter it is behind a pay wall and so you have no idea what it contains or how valid it is. Not that you are capable of evaluating whether science is valid or not, Haig: Haig: 14 delusions about the Sun and earthquakes since 4 May 2015
Your quote mining of a news article does not help: Earth's Magnetic Field Is Weakening 10 Times Faster Now (2014) is not about the comment in the last paragraph.
Your delusions about a weakening magnetic field do not count as science.
 
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Your delusions about a weakening magnetic field do not count as science.


RC it's a fact, our magnetic field is weakening ...

Earth's Magnetic Field Is Fading
Earth's magnetic field is fading. Today it is about 10 percent weaker than it was when German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss started keeping tabs on it in 1845, scientists say.


Study Confirms Earth’s Magnetic Field is Weakening
Earth’s magnetic field is weakening, according to measurements taken over the past six months by the European Space Agency’s (ESA)


5 Truths About Earth's Magnetic Reversal

Earth's magnetic field could flip within a human lifetime
 
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You're sounding a bit bitter tusenfem :eek: are things not going your way? ;)

Thanks for posting the link to ResearchGate it is important that sources can be easily checked and I usually rush too much :covereyes

So tusenfem WHY can't the Sun outputs that are Earth facing / impacting (such as: coronal holes, flares, filaments, sudden changes in the solar wind speed, changes in polarity ... etc) may "trigger" earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events be ELECTROMAGNETIC in nature ?

Now don't go on about magnetic reconnection !

You know Hannes Alfvén warns against magnetic reconnection in this ...

On frozen-in field lines and field-line reconnection



Remember tusenfem

Magnetism and electricity are not separate phenomena



and

Electromagnetism:
Ya know, Haig, I continue to be mightily puzzled.

Yes, you are self-admitted spamtroll, perhaps being paid to help increase the 'hits' to your fave sponsors' sites. Yes, you are, by your own account, ignorant.

What I don't get is why you - and your buddy Sol88 - seem so proud of your ignorance. With almost every post you write here, you seem inexplicably happy to flaunt your ignorance; you seem to delight in showing off just how ignorant you are.

And it's not like other JREF members haven't tried to help you see just how profoundly ignorant you are, nor that you ignore everything they write (unlike, say, jeffreyw); you seem quite content to not follow up with anything others suggest, to dig deeper into the relevant physics (etc), so that you may become less ignorant. You seem to be not only proud of your profound ignorance, you seem to quite stubborn, willful even, in staying ignorant.

Why? :confused:
 
RC it's a fact, our magnetic field is weakening ...
Haig, I know it is a fact that it is observed that the Earth's magnetic field is weakening .
The delusion is that this belongs in a thread about the deluded Ben Davidson's videos about a link between solar activity and earthquakes.

The delusions that crank videos are science and that a follower of the Thunderbolts cult is a valid source of science have already been mentioned!
Ben Davidson spoke at EU 2015. The Electric Universe followers believe in Velikovsky's delusion that planets zoomed around the Solar System to explain various myths in recent times and the extra layer of delusion added by the Thunderbolts authors.
 
Ya know, Haig, I continue to be mightily puzzled.

Yes, you are self-admitted spamtroll, perhaps being paid to help increase the 'hits' to your fave sponsors' sites. Yes, you are, by your own account, ignorant.

What I don't get is why you - and your buddy Sol88 - seem so proud of your ignorance. With almost every post you write here, you seem inexplicably happy to flaunt your ignorance; you seem to delight in showing off just how ignorant you are.

And it's not like other JREF members haven't tried to help you see just how profoundly ignorant you are, nor that you ignore everything they write (unlike, say, jeffreyw); you seem quite content to not follow up with anything others suggest, to dig deeper into the relevant physics (etc), so that you may become less ignorant. You seem to be not only proud of your profound ignorance, you seem to quite stubborn, willful even, in staying ignorant.

Why? :confused:


Welcome back JT :D

This thread is about the topic of the Sun's outputs triggering earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events here on Earth.

What has your rant got to do with that? :p

Your free to ignore the thread and go to something that takes your fancy. ;)

Now move along and take your ad hom's with you :dl:
 
Now don't go on about magnetic reconnection !
We can certainly go on about the delusions that you have about sceintists, Haig :p!
You really think that tusenfem (a scientists working in plasma physics) does not know what electromagnetism is?
:dl:
Those links are as idiotic as citing Maxwell's equations to Hannes Alfven!
Lying about Hannes Alfven's opinion from 1976 is bad, Haig. You quote Hannes Alfvén warning against the "‘frozen-in magnetic field lines’ and ‘magnetic field-line reconnection’" concepts (not magnetic reconnection itself) because they were unnecessary and often misleading.
Now let us add about 40 years of scientific progress :eek:
  • The frozen-in magnetic field lines approximation is probably less used because we now have resistive MHD and a better understanding of when it is appropriate to use this approximation.
  • Magnetic field-line reconnection is still a good visualization of what is happening.
 
What has your rant got to do with that? :p
Could it be that your total ignorance about the topic of the Sun's outputs triggering earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events here on Earth leads you to rely on crank videos rather than science, Haig?
Ben Davidson spoke at EU 2015. The Electric Universe followers believe in Velikovsky's delusion that planets zoomed around the Solar System to explain various myths in recent times and the extra layer of delusion added by the Thunderbolts authors.

Could it be the numerous displays of ignorance about the Sun, earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events that you have just in this thread, Haig?
 
Welcome back JT :D
Thank you.
This thread is about the topic of the Sun's outputs triggering earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events here on Earth Haig spamtrolling links to his sponsor's website.
FTFY
What has your rant highly pertinent question got to do with that? :p
FTFY too.

But I'm glad you responded, it gives me a chance to show your willful ignorance in action ...
Can I just take you back to the hypothesis here ;)

That is: The Sun outputs that are Earth facing / impacting (such as: coronal holes, flares, filaments, sudden changes in the solar wind speed, changes in polarity ... etc) may "trigger" earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events
[...]
However, the hypothesis is: when the earthquake zone is in this fragile state a very big electromagnet (the Sun) can shock/jolt/trigger the very little electromagnet (the earth) into a more stable state by these variable outputs.
OK, clearly you think that's a hypothesis, one worthy of being considered here, in the Science (etc) section.

But is it? Do you, Haig, in all honesty think that what you wrote could seriously be considered a scientific hypothesis? Especially after you've read all the comments by other JREF members?

Here's some more:
They, I suggest, are first trying to establish a link between the solar event and the earthquake, volcano or major weather event. Once that is established then coupling mechanisms can be focused on. Lets not get the cart before the horse :-)
Really? You genuinely, honestly believe this is science/how science is done?

Consider this: if central to the hypothesis is 'may trigger', how is 'establishing a link' relevant?

In other posts of yours you have spammed this thread with material which purports to show some sort of correlation, and which you claim is pertinent to the hypothesis (as above); example. Many JREF members have pointed out some of the serious flaws in this material, and it's clear that you read their posts.

Yet you appear to have not modified your behavior; you continue to spam this thread with material that is irrelevant to these claims, which ignores the helpful critiques offered by JREF members, and you have failed spectacularly to address the critiques (this thread is replete with this sort of stuff).

How does this not show your willful ignorance? Something you seem very proud of?
 
You're sounding a bit bitter tusenfem are things not going your way?

Things are going great at the mainstream Rosetta front, so I have no idea what you are talking about, eek indeed.

Thanks for posting the link to ResearchGate it is important that sources can be easily checked and I usually rush too much

Yes, that is well known.

So tusenfem WHY can't the Sun outputs that are Earth facing / impacting (such as: coronal holes, flares, filaments, sudden changes in the solar wind speed, changes in polarity ... etc) may "trigger" earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events be ELECTROMAGNETIC in nature ?

Because correlation is not causation, and Figs. 3, 5 and 6 show exactly why the ideas of his russian guy is nonsense, you can see it for yourself. Add to that that you still have no mechanism to transport the "electromagnetic energy" into the crust to work as a trigger, and you see that you are beating a dead horse.

Now don't go on about magnetic reconnection !

Why would I start talking about MRX? It is a well known phenomenon, but does not come into this discussion. Using creationist methods here, just drop in something completely unrelated and pull the discussion away from the real topic, being your dead horse.

You know Hannes Alfvén warns against magnetic reconnection in this ...
On frozen-in field lines and field-line reconnection

Nothing to do with this discussion.


And??? Are you really thinking your are the great prophet here? This is something that kids are taught in physics at highschool!

Why not start actually discussion why the Wolf number in Figs. 3, 5 and 6 can do one thing and the various "earthquakes" can do whatever they want? Why not go into detail there, THAT is your schtick here, not what Alfvén may have said and what you are misinterpreting. Stick to one thing here, and discuss the stuff that you linked to, do not just throw it in our face, such that we have to explain it to you (as usual) and you will just reject whatever is said about it.
 
OK, clearly you think that's a hypothesis, one worthy of being considered here, in the Science (etc) section.

But is it? Do you, Haig, in all honesty think that what you wrote could seriously be considered a scientific hypothesis? Especially after you've read all the comments by other JREF members?

Here's some more:

Really? You genuinely, honestly believe this is science/how science is done?

Consider this: if central to the hypothesis is 'may trigger', how is 'establishing a link' relevant?


Sure the hypothesis is worthy of consideration so why don't you as a citizen scientist (as you claim to be) give your critique of it ?

You, instead, spew ad homs as is your MO.

You seem ignorant to the OP where I was invited to support the hypothesis
aleCcowaN said:
FTFY :cool:

I'll post the hypothesis material again below ...

If you can't respond with your "citizen scientist" hat on ... goodbye! ;)

Things are going great at the mainstream Rosetta front, so I have no idea what you are talking about, eek indeed.

Yes, that is well known.

Because correlation is not causation, and Figs. 3, 5 and 6 show exactly why the ideas of his russian guy is nonsense, you can see it for yourself. Add to that that you still have no mechanism to transport the "electromagnetic energy" into the crust to work as a trigger, and you see that you are beating a dead horse.

Why would I start talking about MRX? It is a well known phenomenon, but does not come into this discussion. Using creationist methods here, just drop in something completely unrelated and pull the discussion away from the real topic, being your dead horse.

Nothing to do with this discussion.

And??? Are you really thinking your are the great prophet here? This is something that kids are taught in physics at highschool!

Why not start actually discussion why the Wolf number in Figs. 3, 5 and 6 can do one thing and the various "earthquakes" can do whatever they want? Why not go into detail there, THAT is your schtick here, not what Alfvén may have said and what you are misinterpreting. Stick to one thing here, and discuss the stuff that you linked to, do not just throw it in our face, such that we have to explain it to you (as usual) and you will just reject whatever is said about it.


Thanks for your response tusenfem :) You're wrong but you knew I'd say that :D

The heart of the hypothesis material is below. That is what you (or anybody) needs to explain away.

Relationship Between M8+ Earthquake Occurrences and the Solar Polar Magnetic Fields pdf
Modeling the SPF Earthquake Trigger
To explain the connection between earthquakes and the changes in SPF, we consider modeling the earth as a capacitor (Hill 1971; Ustundag 2005) which could temporarily store energy to be triggered later by changes in the SPF. The ionosphere, an electrically conductive layer, is treated as one plate of the capacitor while the other conducting plates exist in or below the ground. Two plates are separated by the Earth’s atmosphere and mantle crust, which are treated as leaky insulations. In this model, electrical movements in the ionosphere in longitude (compression/expansion) or tangential (circulation) directions can result in significant changes in Earth’s electric fields or magnetic fields which propagate into the Earth’s crust, as part of the capacitor.


THE SUN AND M8+ EARTHQUAKES: THE SPF TRIGGER
This page contains the result of more than 19 months of work. On this page you will find a manuscript prepared by Ben Davidson, Dr. Christopher Holloman, and Dr. Kongpop U-yen, detailing a study of the Solar Polar Magnetic Fields and their relationship to M8+ earthquakes. This manuscript and the accompanying resources are 100% open-source publications.

ABSTRACT
The solar polar fields (SPF) data, as measured by the Wilcox Solar Observatory (WSO), has been studied and compared with the large magnitude earthquake record from the United States Geological Survey. The time period covers the 38 years (+13,600 days) that the WSO has collected the SPF data. This study reveals a dependence of M8.0+ seismicity on the oscillations of the SPF; the results and analysis is reported.


The Sun and Earthquakes video

EARTHSPOTS: Storms and Earthquakes [Update] video

Earthquake and hurricane coupling is ascertained by ground-based laser interferometer and satellite observing techniques pdf

Signatures of ocean storms on seismic records in South China Sea and East China Sea


Feel free to join the earthquake watch :thumbsup:

Ceres Pyramid Mountain, Space Weather | S0 News August 26 2015
 
Sure the hypothesis is worthy of consideration so why don't you as a citizen scientist (as you claim to be) give your critique of it ?

You, instead, spew ad homs as is your MO.

You seem ignorant to the OP where I was invited to support the hypothesis http://www.internationalskeptics.com/forums/showthread.php?postid=10507372#post10507372 FTFY :cool:

I'll post the hypothesis material again below ...

If you can't respond with your "citizen scientist" hat on ... goodbye! ;)




Thanks for your response tusenfem :) You're wrong but you knew I'd say that :D

The heart of the hypothesis material is below. That is what you (or anybody) needs to explain away.

Relationship Between M8+ Earthquake Occurrences and the Solar Polar Magnetic Fields pdf



THE SUN AND M8+ EARTHQUAKES: THE SPF TRIGGER



The Sun and Earthquakes video

EARTHSPOTS: Storms and Earthquakes [Update] video

Earthquake and hurricane coupling is ascertained by ground-based laser interferometer and satellite observing techniques pdf

Signatures of ocean storms on seismic records in South China Sea and East China Sea


Feel free to join the earthquake watch :thumbsup:

Ceres Pyramid Mountain, Space Weather | S0 News August 26 2015
Let's see now ...

"You seem ignorant to the OP where I was invited to support the hypothesis [The title is wrong. Davidson, U-Yen, & Hollmann proposes earthquakes to be triggered by solar activity]" - that's you.

"The important bit is this link between extreme events on the Sun and it's effects on Earth, like this:
EXTREME WEATHER AND EARTHQUAKE DANGER IMMINENT around 23rd-27th March warns Piers Corbyn" - that's you, quoted in the OP.

Your willful ignorance appears to allow you to conflate a proposal (or proposals) by Davidson, U-Yen, & Hollman concerning earthquakes and solar activity with something about Corbyn claiming links with "EXTREME WEATHER"; your willful ignorance appears to allow you to consider there to be just one (scientific) hypothesis, rather than (potentially) many (why "potentially"? Because at least one is certainly not a scientific hypothesis).

"I'll post the hypothesis material again below ... [...] The heart of the hypothesis material is below." And what's below? And does it contain a clear scientific statement of "the hypothesis"?

In a word, no.

  • there are three videos, which even in your willful ignorance you cannot honestly accept as valid
  • there are two documents relating "earthquakes" to "hurricanes", and "ocean storms" and "seismic records"; neither appear to have anything to do with the Davidson+ "hypothesis"

Concerning "THE SUN AND M8+ EARTHQUAKES: THE SPF TRIGGER": you've been around here for quite some time, Haig. And other JREF members have offered you a vast wealth of advice concerning scientific hypotheses, scientific method, plasma physics, and much more. You have had innumerable chances to overcome your profound ignorance, yet you seem to have completely ignored just about everything you've read, from these other JREF members.

This particular document is an excellent example of you appearing to prefer ignorance over learning; here's a quote: "On this page you will find a manuscript [...], detailing a study of the Solar Polar Magnetic Fields and their relationship to M8+ earthquakes"

Had you attempted to overcome your profound ignorance, I have no doubt that you'd have spotted at least one of the glaring flaws in this document, and having spotted such would likely have refrained from posting it here. Instead, you spam this thread, by posting the link/excerpts without providing any comments of your own, concerning how robust this material is, from a scientific perspective. As it relates to "the hypothesis".
 
What IS "the hypothesis"?

Haig appears to be mightily confused over what, exactly, it is.

For example:
* "The Sun outputs that are Earth facing / impacting (such as: coronal holes, flares, filaments, sudden changes in the solar wind speed, changes in polarity ... etc) may "trigger" earthquakes, volcanoes and major weather events"

Haig does not clarify what "etc" may include, so it's entirely reasonable to add things like neutrino output, morphology of (Earth-facing) sunspots, plage area, and microflares, even solar irradiation.

* "However, the hypothesis is: when the earthquake zone is in this fragile state a very big electromagnet (the Sun) can shock/jolt/trigger the very little electromagnet (the earth) into a more stable state by these variable outputs."

This "hypothesis" obviously has close to zero in common with the one he stated, just earlier in the same post. Of course, by "electromagnet" Haig seems to mean "magic"; like so many words he uses, Haig seems to have invented his own, idiosyncratic, vocabulary to use when discussing his wild speculative idea (a.k.a. "hypothesis" in Haig-speak).

"This study reveals a dependence of M8.0+ seismicity on the oscillations of the SPF [Solar Polar Field]" - that's from the document Haig has posted a link to so many times. And is supposedly what this thread is about ("Davidson, U-Yen, & Hollmann proposes earthquakes to be triggered by solar activity").

Haig, how can you claim, with a straight face, that your first statement is the same as the last?
 
davidson pdf said:
In this model, electrical movements in the ionosphere in longitude (compression/expansion) or tangential (circulation) directions can result in significant changes in Earth’s electric fields or magnetic fields which propagate into the Earth’s crust, as part of the capacitor.

Does Mr. Davidson actually know what longitude means? How is longitudinal motion supposed to be "compression/expansion"? Longitudinal means "around the Earth", how is that going to be compression or expansion? And what does he mean with "tangential" in this context?

Would it not be good to put in some actual data in this so-called "paper"? Instead of plots without any axes as in Figure 4? Which figure actually shows that the big earthquakes can happen at any phase of those three coloured curves, reversal or maximum or minimum. So, what was that again that I wrote, that is was badly written???

The authors should have taken magnetometer data and actually show what these significant changes in magnetic and electric field look like to at least try and support their handwaving arugment.

Don't worry Haig, I will not ask you to do something like that.

davidson page said:
This page contains the result of more than 19 months of work.

Who the frak cares about how much time of work is put into it? Spending more time does not make it necessarily better (as obvious from their "paper") neither does spending less time make it worse. A project takes the time it needs.
 
The heart of the hypothesis material is below. That is what you (or anybody) needs to explain away.


No, dear Haig, the burden is yours and not ours. Or it would be yours, if you in fact had a hypothesis rather than, as Dinwar aptly put it, a Just So Story. When you have something more than idle speculations like "...if the Earth was a giant capacitor..." or "..if the Earth was an electromagent.." come back and we can discuss it..
 
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